高级英语写作：WritingParagraphs

Writing Paragraphs 1. Argumentative Essay

Definition: In this kind of essay, we not only give information but also present an argument with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing ideas) of an argumentative issue. We should clearly take our stand and write as if we are trying to persuade an opposing audience to adopt new beliefs or behavior. The primary objective is to persuade people to change beliefs that many of them do not want to change.

Argumentative or persuasive essays?

While some teachers consider persuasive and argument papers to be basically the same thing, it’s usually safe to assume that an argument paper presents a stronger claim—possibly to a more resistant audience.

For example: while a persuasive paper might claim that cities need to adopt recycling programs, an argument paper on the same topic might be addressed to a particular town. The argument paper would go further, suggesting specific ways that a recycling program should be adopted and utilized in that particular area.

议论文是一种议论说理的文章，以抽象的思维形式，通过运用概念、判断、推理等逻辑形式

论证和阐述作者的观点，表明作者赞成什么，反对什么。议论文的目的主要是说服别人接受

或支持某种观点、同意所提出的某项决策或采取所倡导的某种行动。

议论文写作必须做到论点明确、论据充分、论证严密。议论调准确性和逻辑性，注重篇

章结构，讲究修辞模式。另外，议论文常使用规范的书面语，更能增添文章的厚重感和读者

对文章的信任感。

2. When to use argumentative essays

●When you are agreeing or disagreeing with sth or sb. ●When you have an opinion and try to convince your readers to accept your opinions.

3. Structure of argumentative essays

What are the features of an effective argumentative essay? An effective argumentative essay needs to meet the following specific requirements.

It introduces and explains the problem or issue, sometimes tracing its causes,

In some cases it states the possible positions to be taken on the problem.

It states the position that this essay will take.

It offers proof that the position taken in this essay is reasonable to hold.

It anticipates objections to this specific position and refutes them.

It affirms this position and makes a final appeal.

Before starting writing, it is imperative to make a list of these ideas and choose the most suitable ones among them for supporting and refuting.

Three possible organization patterns of an argumentative essay:

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3

Thesis statement Thesis statement Thesis statement PRO idea 1 CON(s) + Refutation(s) CON idea 1 -----> Refutation PRO idea 2 PRO idea 1 CON idea 2 ----->

Refutation

CON(s) + Refutation(s) PRO idea 2 CON idea 3 -----> Refutation

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Note 1: the typical 3-unit/part pattern. Note 2: the olive-shaped structure. A model of a good argumentative essay

The following suggestion takes the form of a model that highlights what one might expect to find

in the three main parts of a good argumentative essay. In trying to master the model, you should

not inadvertently become a slave to it. Otherwise, your essays will become rigid and sterile. Instead, use this as a mental checklist that you can build upon and even be playful with, developing in the process a confident, independent and original voice.

A. Introduction

1. Identify and state your

objects of analysis. The topic or question will often ask you to discuss central texts, key ideas or concepts, issues, or a combination of these.

2. Provide some background to the thesis and reveal the

motive for arguing it. An effective description of the context, situation or problem can demonstrate why the thesis is interesting and worth arguing. Here is your chance to convince your readers (including the marker) that your essay is worth reading—something not to be taken for granted!

3. Formulate and state your

thesis. A thesis is a clearly articulated general idea that

expresses the main point you want to argue in your essay. It should be:

sufficiently focused and narrow so that it can be fully discussed in your essay;

a position that is debatable, and dependent on the strength of evidence and logical

development; not a simple statement of fact, a declaration of belief that cannot be reasonably substantiated, a tautological or circular expression, an obvious point, and so on; B. Body

1. Construct your arguments. To develop your thesis, you will need to construct a

series of smaller supporting arguments that are relevant to the thesis. While every argument should

be directed to the thesis, the individual arguments should not simply be linked together as a random chain of implicitly related but distinct reasons. Instead, they should follow a coherent and logical sequence that builds up, often dramatically, to a convincing and satisfying restatement of the thesis in the conclusion.

Using clear topic sentences that state the main point of each paragraph can help you to be sensitive to the shape of your arguments. You should also think about how the arguments can come together to produce a dramatic build-up, going through various twists and turns, and allowing for conflicts, negotiations, and resolutions to play out. Other related considerations include a sense of timing (e.g. when to reveal certain arguments or facts, for dramatic effect) and proportion (e.g. how much space should

be given to each argument).

2. Support your arguments with

evidence. Broadly speaking, you can support your arguments with empirical evidence in the form of facts, data, statistics, examples, controlled observations, and so on. You should not simply mention them; you should instead elaborate on them by giving details to be connected deliberately with the arguments being made. Also, you should try to give an indication of the reliability of your evidence. You can also support your arguments with academic and professional expertise that you cite or quote directly. To avoid plagiarism, you must cite your sources.

3. Deal with counter-arguments.You will also need to imagine and anticipate

reasonable objections to your thesis and the arguments developed around it. You will need to describe these objections fairly (i.e. don’t create straw men to be knocked down effortlessly). And you will then need to deal with them decisively, demonstrating the superiority of your argument (or some adjusted form of your argument). This not only strengthens your arguments, but also makes your essay more complicated and therefore more interesting.

4. Provide your reader with the It is always important to write with a clear sense of

necessary orientation. audience (i.e. ‘Who are you writing this for?’).

Knowing who your readers are will give you a good idea of what kind and extent of background information you will need to provide before your

ideas, arguments, and evidence can make full sense to the readers.

At the start of the journey, you provided readers with a roadmap. During the journey itself, you should provide clear signposts along the way to give readers a good sense of where they are in this journey. You might, for example, pause at critical junctures in the essay to inform readers about what you have done so far, where you are in the overall argument, and what you are going to do next. C. Conclusion 1. Restate your

thesis. If your arguments have been focused, strong and well developed, you can now confidently reassert your original thesis, or an adjusted or improved version of the thesis that has taken into account the counter-arguments dealt with along the way.

2. Point towards the wider significance of

your essay. This aspect is not altogether necessary for writing a good essay, and it may in fact severely weaken your essay if handled without skill. In any case, writers are usually advised not to introduce any ‘new’ ideas in the conclusion.

However, if you are indeed confident, you may want to consider including a few lines explaining what further implications your thesis might have for other similar or wider questions. You may even want to make recommendations for further study or for action (e.g. in the case of policy papers). And you may also want to try your hand at ‘scenario-painting’. Once again, be aware of the perils.

3. Make an impact with the final

word. Do not end your essay with a sentence that seems to have a ‘nice ring to it’, but in fact means nothing or is completely irrelevant to the arguments. Instead, you might want to end with a witty and relevant detail, illustration, recurring motif, quotation, or anecdote that may keep readers thinking about your essay long after they have read it.

Note1：An argumentative essay usually consists of the following three parts: Introduction, body and conclusion.

Note 2: Give your paper a title. The title should indicate, in a direct manner, the topic or thesis of your paper. Creative a title can work well, but if you’re not sure whether your creative idea really

works, go for a straightforward title. Keep in mind: a. Don’t make the title too long. b. Don’t make the title too cute.

c. Don’t underline or place quotation marks around your own title.

d. If you incorporate the title of another work into your own title, then underline that portion or enclose it in quotation marks as appropriate for the work mentioned.

议论文的标题

议论文的标题必须反映出议论的主题或作者的论点。常见的议论文的标题有以下几种形式：1) 疑问句：这类标题本身就体现了争论的焦点。例如，Who Influence Young Children Most? Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary? Can Money Buy Happiness? Do “Lucky Numbers” Really Bring Good Luck?

2) 陈述句：这类标题本身就是议论文的论点。例如，Parents Are Spoiling Their Children, Rock Music Is Rotting Our Kids’ Mind

等。

3) 名词短语：这类标题没体现出论点，而是只提供了议论的主题。例如，Computer Games, Positive and Negative Aspects of Sports, My View on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements等。

4) 介词短语：这类标题通常由介词on, toward 等引出议论的话题。例如，On Reading, Toward

a Good Teacher-Student Relationship 等。 Note 3:可争辩的论点

任何一篇议论文必须有论点。议论文中的论点是指作者在文章中所表明的主张、见解或观点，它是议论文的核心内容，是议论文的纲。议论文对论点的要求是：正确、鲜明、新颖。议论文的论点通常用I think, I believe, as far as I’m concerned, in my opinion, to my mind, however, yet, unfortunately 等词语引出。有时，作者不使用这些词语，而是直接表达自己的观点。

首先，议论文的论点必须是可争辩的。例如，I don’t think euthanasia is humane 和 I believe that issuing lottery tickets is a good way to collect funds for social welfare projects 都是可争议的论点。相反，事实、个人偏爱、或已被科学证实为人们普遍接受的观点通常都是不可争辩的，因此都不是好的论点。例如，language is a tool for communication, my favorite food is fish, pollution is harmful to people’s health 都不适合做论点。请看以下分析：

1) I think, in China, the examination score is regarded as important in making a decision.

2) In my opinion, it is not easy to achieve success.

3) To my mind, taxis have become an important transportation means.

4) I think cooperation is very important in our work. 5) I believe we should have more fast food restaurants in big cities.

在上述的例1）– 3）中，虽然使用了表达个人观点时经常使用的

词语I think, in my opinion, to my mind，但句子的内容都是客观事实，因此不适合做论点。而例4）、5）中都是可辩驳的观点，因此可以做论点。

其次，论点必须鲜明，不能含含糊糊。在某种角度上说，鲜明的论点是一篇议论文成功的最重要的标志之一。在开始学习议论文写作时，最好把论点放在开头，因为这样做能达到开宗明义、开门见山的效果，也为后面的论述创造条件。尤其是在考试中，一篇议论文的字数不多，应尽快地摆出论点，使文章中心明确，更应该把论点置于文章的开头。

Note 4: the body usually contains paragraphs addressing the opposing side’s argument.

Why do I need to address the opposing side’s argument? By addre ssing the opposition you achieve the following goals:

illustrate a well-rounded understanding of the topic ●demonstrate a lack of bias

●enhance the level of trust that the reader has for both you and your opinion

●give yourself the opportunity to refute any arguments the opposition may have

●strengthen your argument by diminishing your opposition's argument

How do I accomplish this?

●To address the other side of the argument you plan to make, you'll need to \"put yourself in

their shoes.\" In other words, you need to try to understand where they're coming from.

●Acknowledging and refuting differing viewpoints. However, because argumentation

focuses on controversial issues, you should also consider

contrary points of view. To deal

with the different viewpoints effectively, you need to go through RAISE-AND-COUNTER-OBJECTIONS process. First you state what the opposition would say in response to your argument, raising the objection. Second, make this objection

less compelling in some way. Make sure that opposition arguments are stated briefly and

refuted at length, so that your readers know that you do not support the opposition's points.

If the different viewpoint is really valid, concede that point. It does little good in an argument to ignore any valid points the other side may have. You can concede them and then go on to show that your points are more important anyway.

4. Effective paragraphs

Effective paragraph: standard construct, unity, coherence, cohesion.

Standard construct Essays are divided into paragraphs. If your essay is one continuous piece of text, it will be very difficult for any reader to follow your argument. Therefore essays need paragraphs.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis (warrant).

The introduction starts with a fairly general opening statement which introduces readers to your topic (or subject) and

gradually narrows to a specific thesis. The thesis, or thesis statement, tells

the reader what you are going to say about your topic. Thesis statements often come at the end of

the introductory paragraph. This movement from the general to the specific is referred to as a

funnel paragraph.

First Paragraph Techniques

Linear and spiral thinking model 直线型、螺旋型思维模式 In order to grab the readers’ attention and make them want to continue reading, the first paragraph may:

state an opinion directly, e.g. I believe that by the end of the next decade, every home will have a computer …开门见山

state opposite opinions and make your decision.

make reference to a strange scene or situation, e.g. A watch-style monitor will soon allow everyone to keep in touch with …

cite some statistics or quotations to arrive at the topic and viewpoints.

address the reader directly, e.g. Has it ever occurred to you that computers will one day organize your life?

start with a definition of a concept, and then elicit viewpoints. start with a quotation or a rhetorical question (question to which no answer is expected), e.g. Do you feel threatened by computers? 设问作答

start with a problem that needs a solution, e.g. As time passes, our lives will be controlled by computers …

阅读以下议论文的起始段，看看它们提出论点各使用了什么方法： 1) Nowadays, the computer plays an important role in education. Some believe that, despite its advantages, the computer can never replace the face-to-face teaching by the

teacher. Others claim that, with the progress of technology, the traditional face-to-face teaching will give way to the computer. As to me, I agree with the latter.

2) Whenever we are asked, “What are you going to do this summer vacation?” most of us would answer: “I’m going to have a travel.” It seems that we are all fond of traveling. Why? I think this is because traveling is a wholesome activity.

3) Cooperation means that people should help each other, learn from each other and respect each other. Cooperation means that people should work together for the purpose of mutual benefit. Therefore, it is very important to cultivate the sense of cooperation.

4) It is physically impossible for a well-educated, intellectual, or brave man to make money the chief object of his thoughts, as physically impossible as it is for him to make his dinner the principal object of them. All healthy-minded people like making money, but the main object of their lives is not money; it is something better than money.

以上四个例子分别使用了不同的修辞模式提出论点：例1）通过介绍人们的不同看法引出自己的观点；例2）通过大多数人都“旅游度假”这一社会现象，提出自己对“旅游”的看法；例3）通过解释所涉及的话题“合作”的定义引出作者对“培养合作意识”的看法；例4）则开门见山通过类比直接论述作者的观点。

The conclusion starts with a summary of the specific points of your essay, followed by a restatement of your thesis (usually in a slightly reworded form), and ends with a rather general statement about the implications of your thesis. This movement from the specific to the general is just the opposite of that in the introduction, and is known as an inverted funnel.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to

struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion

The last paragraph Techniques

The conclusion ties together your essay. This is the last chance you have to convince your reader, so make it good. To write an effective conclusion:

Sum up your views on the topic.

Give a summary of the main points of your essay. Draw a conclusion from the arguments in your essay. Restate your thesis in a slightly reworded fashion.

Give the reader something to consider, e.g. Life would be more convenient if everyone had access to the Internet

End with a quotation or a rhetorical question, e.g. “Progress is a comfortable disease.” or “What does the future hold for us?

结论是议论文必不可少的一部分。在对论点进行了充分论证后，作者还要对论证进行总结，重申自己的观点, 与前文的论点照应结束全文。

议论文的结论短则一句话，长则一段或几段。但一般都比较简短，常用in a word, in summary, in short, in conclusion, to conclude, therefore, thus, hence, obviously 等引出。以下三个例子是对相关问题进行了论证后得出的结论：

1) In a word, we can benefit from travel in many ways. Therefore, it is worth spending the time and money.

2) It’s obvious whether scientific discoveries are a blessing or a curse depends on how human beings make use of them. If the misuse can be prevented, we can be sure that they are a blessing.

3) Let no one think that educational research is easy; it is

concerned with no less than unraveling the complexities of the human mind. There is no reason to believe that an effective theory and technology of instruction is any easier to achieve than controlled nuclear fusion. It is certainly every bit as worthy.

例1）和例2）都是用两句话对前面的论证进行归纳，最后一句话重申作者观点。例3）的结论包括三个句子。在结论中，作者先总结前面的论证，然后以很强的语气There is no reason to believe that… 陈述自己的看法。最后，使用了一个简短有力的句子进一步强调自己的论点，与主题照应。

The body is made up of the paragraphs which support your thesis. These paragraphs contain the evidence, arguments, and examples that support your thesis.

The paragraphs in your essay that come after the introduction and before the conclusion are often referred to as “body paragraphs”. Here’s what goes into body paragraphs and the role each plays in your essay:

T he body paragraphs present the evidence, arguments, examples, and reasoning that go to proving the thesis.

B ody paragraphs have two parts: the topic sentence and the supporting detail.

T he topic sentence tells what the paragraph is about; it introduces the part of your thesis you are going to discuss in that paragraph. A topic sentence can appear anywhere in the paragraph, but it’s a good idea to place it at the beginning. The idea in the topic sentence must be directly related to the thesis.

T he supporting detail in a paragraph develops the point made in the topic sentence. This supporting detail must be relevant to the topic sentence.

If possible, the body should contain paragraphs addressing the opposite arguments.

How to write a good topic sentence

A topic sentence gives only the main idea; therefore, it is the most general statement in the paragraph. The topic should be such that：

It should be narrowed down, not too general. ○ American food is terrible

○ Marijuana should be considered illegal. (too general. In some medical cases, marijuana is prescribed by the doctors and the patients are encouraged to use it in case of suffering from too much pain)

★Selling and using marijuana in public places should be considered illegal.

It should not be too specific ○ Smoking can cause lung cancer. it should contain an argument

○We should decide whether we want a bicycle or a car. (Our stand is not clear: do we support

having bicycles or cars?)

★ If we are under the age of 30 and want a healthy life, we should definitely get a bicycle instead of a car.

○Are you one of those who thinks cheating is not good for students? (a question cannot be an argument)

★ Cheating helps students learn.

○Considering its geological position, Turkey has an important geopolitical role in the EU. (facts cannot be arguments)

★ Considering its geopolitical role, we can clearly say that the EU cannot be without Turkey.

It should be a topic that can be adequately supported (with statistics, source citations, etc.)

○I feel that writing an argumentative essay is definitely a

challenging task. (feelings cannot be supported; we cannot persuade other people)

Positions of Topic sentences

this topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of the paragraph, but can come at the end or even in the middle of the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph generally expands the theme contained in the main sentence, and each idea round the main theme is supported by information and evidence (in the form of illustrations and examples), and by argument.

Paragraph 1

Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on foreign aid programs, it has captured neither the affection nor esteem of the rest of the world. In many countries today Americans are cordially disliked; in others merely tolerated. The reasons for this sad state of affairs are many and varied, and some of them are beyond the control of anything this country might do to try to correct them. But harsh as it may seem to the ordinary citizen, filled as he is with good intentions and natural generosity, much of the foreigners' animosity has been generated by the way Americans behave. (Edward Hall, (1973), The silent language, p. xiii)

Paragraph 2

Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved and diversified. And finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever human beings are found.

Unity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. A paragraph is unified when all the

sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought/theme (语义一致性).

Cohesion may not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear and logical

order. He has to use good transitions so that the sentence runs smoothly from one to another.

The writer can use different ways to produce a fluent paragraph (形式衔接性).

Cultural difference: Hypotaxis：[,haip?'t?ksis] and parataxis：[,p?r?'t?ksis] 形合、意合

Coherence and transition of a paragraph is concerned with its form/organization.

The word “coherence” means ‘to stick together”. A coherent paragraph is composed of sentences that are related to each other logically and clearly so that all the ideas flow smoothly from one sentence to the next one naturally. Each sentence in such a paragraph should naturally grow out of each previous sentence in developing the central idea. Ideally, there should be a sense of movement or flow, a going forward and building on

what has been said before. When the body contains several paragraphs, it is, therefore, important to present that evidence and those arguments in the best manner possible. Usually, the most effective way to organize your body paragraphs is to start with your weakest argument and end with your strongest. Doing so will give your essay a feeling of irresistible movement. Your readers will see your essay growing in strength until they can no longer argue against you. At least that’s what you’re aiming for（结构连贯性）. 清楚的逻辑推理

与其他文体相比，议论文的逻辑尤为重要，所提供的事实、例子等证据之间，以及它们与全文的结论之间都要有合理的逻辑关系。逻辑关系错误或不严密会迷惑读者，使读者对文章的观点产生怀疑。通常使用的逻辑推理方法有以下几种：1)归纳法：综合若干个具体事例的共同本质，归纳出一般规律，即通过个别、特殊到一般，从微观到宏观的论证方法；2) 演绎法：与归纳法相反，演绎法从一般规律入手，推论到个别事物，从宏观到微观。如果平时积累些科学道理和原理、英语中常用的人生哲理或谚语、名人的经典论述等，那么在写作中就可以随时调动、应用、引申，演绎出一篇理由充足的文章；3) 类比法：这种论证方法根据两个对象在某种属性上的相同或相似推出结论。此外，议论文中也经常使用因果逻辑关系。有时，在同一篇文章中交叉使用这些方法。请看对下面短文中逻辑性的分析：

1) As His Name Is, So Is He

For her 24 years, she’d been known as Debbie—a name that didn’t suit her good looks and elegant manner. “My name has always made me think I should be a cook,” she complained. “I just don’t feel like a Debbie.”

One day, while filling out an application form for a publishing job, the young woman impulsively substituted her middle name, Lynne, for her first name Debbie. “That was the smartest thing I ever did,” she says now. “As soon as I stopped calling myself

Debbie, I felt more comfortable with myself… and other people started to take me more seriously.” Two years after her successful job interview, the former waitress is now a successful magazine editor. Friends and associates call her Lynne.

Naturally, the name change didn’t cause Debbie/Lynne’s professional achievement—but it surely helped if only by adding a bit of self-confidence to her talents.

2) Is It a Good Thing to Live in a Big City?

Each year thousands of people rush into big cities. Some come for education, some come for shopping or sight-seeing, and some come on business. But most of them are attracted by the modern life in big cities and come to settle. Is it a good thing to live in a big city?

People enjoy city life chiefly because of its conveniences. For example, the city provides fast transport, with buses, subways and taxies. Then, there are department stores and bookstores all over the city. Hospitals and other services are at hand.

However, people in big cities are often confronted with many problems. One is the housing problem. The prices of housing are getting increasingly high. So many people have to buy their houses in the suburbs far away from their offices. Everyday, they have to travel a long distance to go to and from work. Another problem is traffic congestion. The streets in big cities are always congested with various vehicles such as buses, cars, motorcycles. As a result, noise and air pollution are produced, which is also a problem in big cities.

In short, although the city is a good place for shopping and travel, it is not a good place to live in. 短文1）采用了归纳法，从名为Debbie的女子对她自己的名字的感受以及她在改了名字之后生活发生的变化这一具体实例归纳出“人如其名”这一一般结论；短文2）主

要采用了演绎法，在说明人们涌入大城市这一现象、大城市的优势和问题时，使用了主题句先概述总的情况再解释细节的演绎逻辑。

5. Ways of Developing Body Paragraphs 5.1 Types of argumentative essays Giving Advantages and Disadvantages

When giving arguments for and against a topic you should present both sides in a fair way by discussing them objectively in equal detail. Start your essay by making a general statement about the topic, and then give the advantages and disadvantages in (at least) two separate paragraphs. Remember to start a new paragraph for each new topic and to make a plan before writing your essay. Finally, end your essay with a well-balanced consideration of the points discussed. It is possible to state an opinion without using strong, emotional or personal expressions. (Do not use words such as: I know, I believe, etc. Use words such as: It seems that …, It can be seen that …, etc.) If you believe that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, write them just before the final paragraph so that it will be easier for you to lead the reader to the conclusion.

Expressing Opinions

This type of argumentative essay uses personal expressions, unlike the for and against essay, which does not include them. Your personal opinion should be expressed in the introduction and again in the conclusion, using phrases such as “In my opinion”, “I believe”, “I think”, “I strongly believe”, and “In my view”. You should support your opinion by including examples and reasons for what you have said. When expressing the other side of the argument, you may include it in a separate paragraph. End your essay by restating your opinion, using different words.

The format for persuasive argumentative

Introduce what “they say” (the other side)-introduction Often an introduction includes an illustrative quotation, a revealing fact or statistic, or an anecdote. Rather than choosing one of these, try the templates below:

It is often said that . . . . You would think that . . . .

My whole life I have heard that . . . .

Although X does not say so directly, she apparently assumes that . . . .

Furthermore, throughout your writing, continue to the other opinion often, to keep your writing lively.

Here is an example of such a “return” sentence:

In conclusion then, as I have suggested earlier, defenders of _________ can’t have it both ways.

Their assertion that _______________ is contradicted by their claim that __________________.

“Return” sentences ensure that your writing is focused and urgent throughout.

Offer your argument- “I say” - Proposition statement It is best to begin your response by stating clearly whether you agree, disagree, or both. If you disagree, you must then provide persuasive statements explaining why.

Disagreeing templates:

I think X is mistaken because she overlooks _____________. By focusing on __________, X overlooks the deeper problem of __________.

X contradicts herself/can’t have it two ways. On the one hand, she argues ____. But, on the other hand, ____. Agreeing templates:

I agree that ____________, because my experience confirms it. X’s theory of _____________ is extremely useful because she sheds light on the difficult problem of _____.

I agree that ______________, a point that needs emphasizing since so many people believe _______________. ? If group X is right that ________________, as I think they are, then we need to reassess the popular assumption that ______________.

Agree and disagree simultaneously:

Although I agree with X up to a point, I cannot accept his overall conclusion that ________. (This one is particularly good for disagreeing more.)

Although I disagree with much that X says, I fully endorse his final conclusion that ________. (This one emphasizes agreement.)

Though I concede that ____________, I still insist that __________________.

My feelings on the issue are mixed. I do support X’s position that _________, but I find Y’s argument about __________and Z’s research on __________ to be equally persuasive. (This template presents an example of the “two minds” or “mixed feelings” pattern.)

Conclusion- So What? Who Cares?

Why do any of your assertions matter? When you clearly answer the questions “so what” and “who cares,” you make clear the real-world applications and consequences of your claims. This clarification asks you to link your argument to some larger matter that readers already deem important.

These conclusions make clear the importance of ______, which _______ had not recognized.

However, who really cares? At the very least, this situation should be important to ___, who ______.

Politicians have long assumed _______________, while on closer inspection, ______________.

X matters / is important because _____________.

These conclusions / This discovery will have significant applications in ____ as well as in _____.

Although X may seem of concern to only a small group of ____________, it should in fact concern anyone who cares about ______________.

Providing Solutions to Problems

First, state the problem and the reason why it has arisen. You should mention that there are several possible solutions and then go through each suggestion in turn, including any expected results or consequences. The concluding paragraph should summarize the writer’s opinion or give the best suggestion and explain why this is the case.

Note: use signal verbs in your argument.

5.2 Argument

agree with your opinion, premise or idea;

Argument refers to strategies for manipulating others to i.e. to convince others. Argumentative writing has a different motivation from expository writing, in that not only does it share and explain information and ideas, but it can also ask readers to

choose one side of an issue or take a particular action.

Providing strong support for the thesis

Convincing evidence is a crucial part of an argumentative essay. As in any effective essay, the evidence must be unified, adequate, specific, accurate and representative. Although the number of points varies with the topic, you should try to develop more than two in order to be convincing. Brainstorming is a particularly helpful way of gathering strong evidence.

A composition or essay is often an explanation. Not just of what you think, but of WHY you think it. The WHY comprises many types of support, including evidence, examples and details. Your type of support will vary depending upon the question you are asked, or the purpose of your writing.

Logical Argument (argument)

Logical Argument– appeals to reason and intellect. A. Two common reasoning techniques

1. Induction – the process of arriving at general principles from particular facts or instances.

2. Deduction – the process of reasoning from general claims to specific instance.

B. Evidence证据

Evidence is the cornerstone of all reasoning which consists of facts, statistical information, examples, and expert testimony. Effective evidence must be:

1. Sufficient – enough evidence should be given to lend credibility and avoid hasty generalizations from inadequate proof. It is an error to give too much as well as too little.

2. Representative – evidence must be typical and believable to lead to a reasonable conclusion.

3. Relevant – evidence should have obvious relation to the assertion made.

4. Accurate – evidence must be reliable and proven without distortion or misrepresentation.

5. Qualified – define the limitations of the evidence rather than making sweeping inflexible statements.

6. Reliable – comes from a trustworthy source.

7. Verifiable – can be confirmed or proven by other means. We use specific examples to give our readers tangible (physical, real) evidence for our beliefs. Without specific examples, you are simply writing endless ideas with no support, and often very

little point.

Specific Examples are the broadest category of evidence. They can be just about anything – A person, a place, an event, or a thing that they allow the reader to understand you with examples that can be seen in real life.

For example

●China is a really great country. I like it very much. It is so much fun to live here. There is always something interesting to do, and the people are great too. If you lived here, you would be very happy. Therefore, it is wonderful to live in China.

●This is the OPPOSITE of what you should do! What is the problem? THERE IS NO SUPPORT

* Always ask yourself WHY if you make a claim, then answer that question using specific examples.

●Why is it fun to live here?

●Why are there always interesting things to do? ●Why are the people great? ●Why would you be happy?

C. Judgments

Judgments are conclusions inferred from facts. Unlike opinions, judgments lend credibility to an argument because they result from careful reasoning.

Any time you are asked to choose a position on an issue or persuade/convince someone, base your support on facts.What are facts?

1) Something known for certain to have happened. 2) Something known for certain to be true. 3) Something known for certain to exist. Contrast Fact with Opinion Opinions are:

1) Something believed to have happened 2) Something believed to be true 3) Something believed to exist

* Let’s take a look at China again. If you have a question that asks whether or not China is a good country, here’s how to answer it…

●If you think China is a great country, don’t use a story about your 15 year-old sister helping an old woman once as an example of Chinese people being kind.

●Why? I have no idea if that happened, so it doesn’t prove anything to me.

●Stories are okay if you are asked for a personal experience, otherwise avoid them.

●Instead, give me real evidence that is true to prove it to me! ●If you say Chinese people are kind, talk about many/most Chinese people, not one.

D. Testimony

Testimony affirms or asserts facts. A person who had had

direct experience (an eyewitness) or who has developed expertise in a subject (an expert witness) can provide testimony based on fact, judgment, or both. Both kinds of testimony can constitute powerful evidence; however, each has its limitations, and each type of testimony can be abused.

1. Eyewitness – asked to report facts as they understand them. Eyewitness testimony provides authenticity. An eyewitness is not always trustworthy. Eyewitness testimony can be distorted by

faulty observation or biased opinion. An eyewitness account of an evening may be convincing, but it should not be used to draw parallels to unrelated events.

2. Expert Witness – asked to study facts and render a judgment. Expert testimony provides authority. An expert witness is not infallible or always unbiased. Expert testimony, often difficult for the non-expert to challenge, can be disputed by other experts employing a different method of investigation. Expert credentials in one field, whatever eminence they convey, do not automatically carry over to other (even related) fields.

Use quotations to support relevant points.

While a quotation can be a powerful way to demonstrate the ideas in a point of view, too often people let the quotation “speak for itself” rather than explaining them and showing their relevance to your ideas. A “frame” needs to be built around quotations to tie them in effectively. This frame may be thought of as a “quotation sandwich,” with an introductory statement preceding the quote and an explanatory sentence following it. Thus, introduce quotations with words such as these: ·As the prominent author X puts it, “________.”

·X agrees when she writes, “_____________.”

· According to X, “________________.”

Next, explain quotations in words similar to these: ·Basically, X is saying __________. ·In other words, X believes ___________.

·In making this comment, X argues that ______________. It is most important to explain explicitly what the quotation means. The bottom half of the sandwich is essential!

E. Reasons

For many compositions, the best way to support your thesis is to explain why you think the way you do. That explanation will lay out your reasons – sometimes they will be facts, others opinions, depending upon the question.

The key to this type of support is LOGIC.

Your reasons must be based on evidence or good common sense. To meet that standard, many reasons need considerable support. They can’t simply be stated with an expectation that the audience will believe them. In fact, making that mistake is exactly the kind of thing I am waiting to criticize when I read many essays.

F. Identify sources

As you collect your evidence, be careful to identify and record its source. Your readers will want to know where you found the information important to your argument. If you cannot identify your source, your reader may question your knowledge ability. If your information comes from dubious sources, your readers may doubt your credibility. Identify information from printed, visual, verbal and electronic sources in the text of your paper even when using a documentation page.

G. Avoid Logical Fallacies Hasty generalization

False analogy

Hypothesis contrary to the fact, etc. Persuasive Argument (persuasion)

Persuasive argument – appeals to the emotions rather than the intellect and thus can be highly effective in motivating people; however, most of these techniques are coupled with logical

fallacies and used to negatively manipulate consumers, voters, and other large groups.

A. to persuade audiences successfully, you must make them want to believe or act.

When people are forced to accept beliefs, or change behaviors, they may soon abandon them. Actions done unwillingly are usually done inefficiently and without any sense of reward or accomplishment. Consider your audience’s needs and desires.

B. Common Patterns of Development for Argument 1. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

a. Attention Step – create interest and desire

b. Need Step – develop the problem by analyzing components and relating to the individual’s interests, goals, or desires; prove a problem does exist.

c. Satisfaction Step – propose a plan of action that will alleviate the problem and satisfy the relevant individual or group.

d. Visualization Step – depict the plan in action; show the dream; paint the pictur

e.

e. Action Step – call for personal commitments and deeds; clear, specific, actions to take now.

2. Point-by-point Pattern a. Introduction

b. The overall problem: identify and demonstrate c. One part of the problem: solution, evidence, feasibility d. Second part of the problem: solution, evidence, feasibility e. Third part of problem: solution, evidence, feasibility f. Conclusion: summary, implementation, call to action 3. Alternatives Pattern a. Introduction

b. The problem: identify and demonstrate

c. Alternative solution one: what it is and why it is not satisfactory

d. Alternative solution two: what it is and why it is not satisfactory

e. Alternative solution three: what it is and why it will work best; evidence, feasibility

f. Conclusion: summary, implementation, call to action 充分的证据

有了鲜明的观点，接下来重要的问题是怎么展开论述。即怎么运用最有说服力的论据，使它和自己的观点相统一，证明自己的观点是正确的。实际上，这涉及到如何寻找论述的切入口，如何开阔写作的思路，如何运用适当的论证方法来证明，如何安排好论述的顺序、谋求满意的结构布局，如何使自己的论据丰富而有效等问题。

有说服力的议论文除了具有充分、确凿的论据之外，还要运用适当的论证方法证明文章的论点。常用的论证方法有例证法、反证法、列举法、对比法、推理法等。例证法就是举例证明，是一种正面论证方法。例证的关键在于如何选择和运用具有典型意义的事例来论证某一论点。反证法就是从反面假设入手，论证假设的荒谬无理，从而间接证明假设的对立面，即正面所立的论点的正确性。列举法就是将某一事物的特点、优缺点等一一罗列出来的论证方法。对比法就是把事物的两个方面进行对比，以使事物的两个方面更加突出或清晰。推理法就是从普遍性结论或一般性事理推导出个别性结论的论证方法。阅

读以下论证方面的例子，注意它们在论证过程中使用的论证方法：

1) I think cooperation is very important in our work. Without it, we will fail. I believe there are many examples to show this point.

2) China’s education has paid too much attention to the examination score. The students are judged by the score to

decide whether they can get their diploma and staff members are judged by the score to decide whether they can be promoted. To meet the needs of the learners, teachers have to spend much time cracking testing skills in their lectures.

3) I believe we should have more fast food restaurants in big cities. This is because these restaurants provide the cities with delicious fast food and wonderful services. Many people like to eat in a fast food restaurant to save time. Others go there to enjoy the food with different flavors. In addition, the environment is very nice and the service is terrific there.

4) Travel is beneficial to people in many ways. First of all, travel can widen our horizon, including the knowledge of geography, the knowledge of customs, cultures and lifestyles of people in different places and countries. Secondly, we can make friends and meet different people through traveling. On the train, bus or plane, we can chat with other passengers to know more people, or even make friends with them. Finally, travel is the best way to enjoy ourselves, because we can not only see the most beautiful scenery but also taste food with different local flavors.

5) As a developing country, should we develop space technology? Like everything else, it has both favorable and unfavorable aspects. The disadvantages can be listed as follows: First, at the present, our main task is to develop economy. Also, space technology can cause environmental pollution. At the

same time, in doing so a lot of energy will be wasted.

The advantages of developing space technology are also obvious, if we don’t develop this technology, we will be left behind. So in order to catch up with the developed countries, we must do this. In addition, by developing space technology, we can probably find other places in space for human beings to travel to or even live in.

6) New scientific discoveries nearly always bring to mankind a blessing—convenience, comfort and enjoyment. For example, transportation progress enables us to go out to any places we want to. Electrical appliances like washing-machines, refrigerator and air-conditioner make our life comfortable. TV and the Internet provide us with any information, knowledge and amusement we want.

Of course, scientific discoveries may prove a curse. They can be used to produce sophisticated weapons to kill people and to commit crimes. Yet, we must note that it’s not the fault of scientific discoveries.

在以上的例子中，例1）的论证过于抽象、模糊，缺乏具体的事实、例证或分析。例2）和例3）分别通过列举和分析原因为论点提供了比较充分的证据。当然，论据的充分与否是相对而言的，要根据文章的篇幅、写作的时间或讨论的话题等因素确定。但一般来讲，只用一个简单的例子来证明一个论点，通常是不够的。例4）采用了列举法，说明旅游的三方面的优点。一般说来，采用列举证时，所列出的项目应不少于三项。例5）在论证过程中对中国是否应该发展太空技术的两个方面平均使用笔墨，致使读者搞不清到底作者在证明哪种观点，这是在议论文的写作过程中应该注意避免的。虽然论证过程中有时采用反证简短地提及相反的看法或证据，但其目的是为了衬托作者自己的论点，使自己的论证更严密、更充分，而不是像本例中那样只列出反面的观点。例6）先以具体的例子为证据进行论证，继而采用了反证，

分析了为什么存在相反的说法，并指出：Yet, we must note that it’s not the fault of scientific discoveries. 因此，例6）的论证充分、严密。

5.3 Ways of developing paragraphs Development by comparison and contrast 1. Pictures

Brainstorming – Generating Ideas 2. Writing Strategies

In making contrast, we have to compare. There is no other way to point out the difference, i.e. the

contrast. What is of great importance is to know that professional writers frequently use these two strategies to develop paragraphs.

There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then start the other– All about pattern; the other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point– Seesaw pattern.

2.1 To examine one thing thoroughly and then start the other. Focus: The aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. Pattern: A1, A2, A3; B1, B2, B3. （All about Pattern）

Example:Contrast

1] My hometown is quite different from what it used to be. Subtopic: 2]Just a little more that ten years ago my hometown was a small quiet place.

A（1）3]The houses were small and mean.

A（2）3]The streets were for the most part narrow and winding.

A（3）3]There were few people in the streets and shops.

Subtopic: 2]Now, everything has changed.

B（1）: 3]Looking in every direction from the center of the town, one sees a long succession of giant, imposing buildings.

B（2）: 3]The streets, whether long or short, are straight, spacious, and well-shaded.

B（3）: 3] Crowds of people can be found here and there, hurrying, noisy, and well-dressed. ?C From a dull little village with clusters of shabby houses in the past, my hometown has now transformed into a big city, cheerful, colorful, and prosperous.

2.2 to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point.

Focus: Aspects examined in two things should be identical and in the same order.

Pattern: A1, B1;A2, B2;A3,B3 (Seesaw Pattern) Example: comparison.

1] Despite their obvious differences in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally.

A（1）: 2]For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence.

B（1）: 2]In the essay, the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic focus.

A（2）:2]Next, the sentences in the body of a paragraph develop the topic sentence.

B（2）:2]Similarly, the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph.

A（3）:2] Finally, a terminator---whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation---ends the paragraph.

B（3）: 2]The essay, too, has a device which brings its ideas

to a logically and psychologically satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph.

C] Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.

2.3 An Analysis of an Essay

These two patterns can also be used to compose an essay. Now read the following short essay and analyze it according to what you have learned so far

Paris and Washington differ in age and population; however, anyone who has seen the two cities can tell that

they are very similar.

Of course, Paris is much older than Washington. The French city is over2000 years old. Washington, in contrast, is very young. It is less than 250 years old. The population of Paris is also much larger than Washington’s Paris has more than 2,500,000 people. Washington has just over 700,000.

In spite of these differences, the similarities are striding. First, both cities are the political centers of their countries. The president of France lives in the heart of Paris, in the Elysees Palace. Likewise, the president of the United States has its meeting place in Washington, in the Capitol. Second, the two cities look similar. L’Enfant, the French engineer who designed Washington, was greatly influenced by the layout of the capital of France. For this reason, many of the buildings and monuments in Washington are symmetrically located in views of one another, just as they are in Paris. Both cities are also the sites of magnificent monuments, important historical landmarks, fine museums, beautiful parks, and board, treelined avenues. Finally, tourism is as important for Washington as it is for Paris Every year millions of tourists from

all parts of the world visit these cities to view their attractions Questions

1. Which is the thesis statement of the essay?

2. Find the topic sentence and controlling idea of the 2nd and 3rd paragraph.

3. Find the connectives in the 3rd paragraph. 4. Which pattern does this essay follow? Development by Cause and Effect

1. In everyday conversation, when you give your opinion on a topic, you will probably proceed to give your reasons to support it . If you begin with a cause, you will proceed to explain its resulting effects, while if you begin with some effects, and then proceed to state the cause responsible for them. In writing, you can do the same.

2. Strategies

2.1 Cause—Effect paragraph

Focus: the relation between the topic sentence and its supporting ideas

Linking words:As a result, Next, In addition, Finally Example 1 :

1]It is difficult for workers to find employment this years. 2] As a result, many recent college graduates are unemployed or taking part-time jobs to meet expenses.

2] Unemployment among high school graduates has meant that large numbers of teenagers are seeking unemployment benefits.

2] The unemployment figures are the highest in decades. 2] Finally, the federal government must contribute large amounts of money to support the growing numbers of people who are receiving welfare assistance.

Example 2:

1]Bag-packing travelling is enjoying a higher popularity among young people in china.

2] As a result, more and more young people comprehend the beauty and magic of

nature and fatherly, fall in love with it.

2] After experiencing the amazing magnificence of high mountains and long rivers

and the charming folklores of diverse peoples, they cannot help developing a

feeling of patriotism.