Language and Learning
Unit 1 Language and Learning Main concerns:
Views on language
Views on language learning
What is a good language teacher, and how can one become such?
1.1 How do we learn language? Task 1 on pp. 1-2
How many foreign languages can you speak? Did you find learning a foreign language easy? What difficulties did you experience? Why? Which skill did you find more difficult to learn? Did you focus on knowledge or skills? Why? Why did you learn the foreign language(s)?
Did you find it interesting to learn the foreign language(s)? What were your most common learning activities?
Did you like the way you learned the foreign language(s)? Conclusions of the task
People learn a foreign language for different reasons; People learn languages in different ways;
People have different understandings about language learning; and
People have different capabilities in language learning. 1.2 Views on language
The answer to the question ‘What is language?’ is the basis for: syllabus design, teaching methods,
teaching procedures, and teaching techniques .
A definition of language is always, implicitly or explicitly, a definition of
human beings in the world. Raymond Williams
Language is a purely human and
non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotion and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Edward Sapir
A set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. Noam Chomsky
The institution whereby humans
communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used
oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. R.A. Hall
David Crystal:
The systematic, conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society
for communication and self-expression. Task 2 (p. 2)
What is language?
Sample definitions of “language” (p. 177)
Language:
is a system/set of symbols; is (primarily) vocal;
is arbitrary and conventional;
consists of a set of rules (and is rule-governed); is related to culture;
is used for human communication or interaction. It can be defined in three ways :
it is a finite system of sound units which are combined according to a certain order (a syntax) in order to form an infinite amount of information;
it is an arbitrary system of symbols; a word is arbitrarily linked to an object ;
it is a system that lets us express current events as well as real and imaginary ones be they in the past, present or future Three different views of language
The structural view, The functional view, The interactional view The structural view
The structural view sees language as a linguistic system. The system of language = the system of sounds + the system of words + the system of grammar The structural view
System of
Language 3 sub-systems
The structural view The structural view The functional view
(The functional-notional view)
The functional view sees language as a linguistic system and as
a means for doing things. Functions of language e.g.
offering, suggestion, advising, apologizing, etc.
To perform functions, rules and vocabulary are needed to express notions. Notions e.g.
present time, past time, and future time; certainty and possibility; agent and instrument;
relationship between people and objects The interactional view
The interactional view sees language as a communicative tool
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(to build up and maintain relations between people). Two things are needed for communication: Rules of language form (grammar & vocabulary)
Rules of language use in a context (Is it appropriate to use this language item in this context?)
Views on the nature of language have an impact on the teaching/learning method of a person. 1.3 Views on language learning
Views on language learning involve two questions:
What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes of language learning?
What are the conditions for the learning processes to be activated?
The Process-oriented theories and The Condition-oriented theories The Process-oriented theories
The Process-oriented theories concern how the mind processes new information. e.g.
habit formation, induction,
making inference, hypothesis testing, generalization
The Condition-oriented theories
The Condition-oriented theories concern the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place. e.g.
number of students,
what kind of input learners receive, learning atmosphere The Behaviourist theory and
The Cognitive theory The Behaviourist theory Watson an Raynor:
a stimulus-response theory of psychology The Behaviourist theory According to the theory:
Forms of bebaviour such as motions, habits, etc. are seen as elements that can be observed and measured. The Behaviourist theory
“You can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement.” (Harmer. 1983:30) The Behaviourist theory The Behaviourist theory
Skinner: Language is also a form of behaviour.
USA: The Audio-Lingual Method (the “listen-and-repeat” drilling activities). Mistakes were immediately corrected. The Cognitive theory Chomsky’s question:
If all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce
a sentence that has never been said by others before? e.g.
五岁女孩：“中国队加油！外国队漏油！”(2005.05.05晚上9:30)
The impact of ➢Chomsky’s theory on language teaching
One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules.
➢This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method. 1.4 What is
a good language teacher?
kind, dynamic, authoritative, speaking clearly, creative, patient, well-informed, hardworking, resourceful (having the ability to find a way round the difficulty), attentive, warm-hearted well-prepared, flexible, intuitive, accurate, enthusiastic, humourous, caring, disciplined, professionally-trained (Parrot. 1993)
1.5 How can one become a good language teacher? Teaching: is it a craft, or is it an applied science?
If we take teaching as a craft, then we would believe that a novice teacher can learn the profession by imitating the experts’ techniques, just like an apprentice.
If we take teaching as an applied science, then we would believe that knowledge and experimentation are necessary. A compromise between the two views by Wallace (1991)
Stage 1: Language training
Stage 2: 3 sub-stages: 1) learning; 2) practice; 3) reflection Stage 3: Goal (professional competence)
What does the double arrow between Stage 1 and Stage 2 mean?
In which stage does this course take place?
Why are Practice and Reflection connected by a circle? Summary of Unit 1 Views on language
The structural view, the functional view, and the interactional view
Views on language learning
The Process-oriented theories and the Condition-oriented theories
The Behaviourist theory and the Cognitive theory Qualities of a good language teacher
Ethic devotion, professional quality, and personal style The three stages of becoming a good language teacher
End of Unit 1 Thank you!
Communicative
Principles and Activities
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Framework of this lecture:
➢Language use in real life v.s. traditional pedagogy;
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➢Communicative competence;
➢The implementation of language skills; ➢Communicative activities.
2.1 Language use in real life vs.
traditional pedagogy
The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is: to enable the learners to use the foreign language in work or life
Therefore, we should teach: that part of the language that will be used; in the way that is used in the real world.
Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy: (pp. 14-15) In real life: ?
The traditional pedagogy: ? The consequence: ?
Task 1.
In real life: Language is used to perform certain communicative functions.
The traditional pedagogy: focuses on forms rather than on functions.
The consequence: The learners have learned a lot of sentences or patterns, but they are unable to use them appropriately in real social situations.
In real life: We use all skills, including the receptive skills and the productive skills.
The traditional pedagogy tends to focus on one or two language skills and ignore the others.
The consequence: The learners cannot use the language in an integrated way.
In real life: Language is always used in a certain context. The traditional pedagogy tends to isolate language from its context. e.g. the passive
The consequence:The students are puzzled about how to use the language in a particular context. 2.2 Fostering communicative competence The goal of CLT is to develop students’ communicative competence.
Communicative Competence vs. Linguistic Competence Linguistic Competence = grammatical knowledge or
knowledge about the language form Communicative Competence = Knowledge & ability for: rules of form/grammar + rules of use
Language competence and communicative competence a. Chomsky’s theory: competence simply means knowledge of the language system: grammatical knowledge
in other words
b. Hymes’s theory: “there are “rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless”. Besides grammatical rules, language use is governed by rules of use, which ensure that the desired or intended functions are performed and the language used is appropriate to the context.
According to Hymes (1979), communicative competence includes four aspects: (pp. 15-16)
knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammaticality: grammatically acceptable); 知道形式上是否可能
knowing whether something is understandable to human beings (feasibility);知道是否可行
knowing whether something is in line with social norms (appropriateness in a social context);知道是否得体
knowing whether or not something is in fact done (what the language performance entails).知道实施的条件 To sum up
communicative competence included four aspects: grammatically acceptable understandable social norms actually use
Communicative Competence includes knowledge/awareness of:
when to say where to say to whom to say what to say how to say
Features of CLT (p. 16)
CLT stresses the need to allow students opportunities for authentic and creative use of the language; CLT focuses on meaning rather than on form;
CLT suggests that learning should be relevant to the needs of the students;
CLT advocates task-based language teaching (TBLT);
CLT emphasizes a functional approach to language learning and culture awareness of the target language.
1. authentic and creative 2. meaning rather than form 3. relevant to the needs 4. task-based teaching 5. functional approach
Richards and Rodgers’ (1986:72) three principles of CLT (p. 16)
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Communicative principle; Task principle;
Meaningfulness principle
2.3 The implementation of language skills
The translation of communicative competence in language teaching practice is to develop the learners’ skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing. In listening and speaking
Students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and reactive if ever possible.
In traditional pedagogy, listening and speaking were treated
as skills different from what takes place in reality.
Therefore, listening and speaking skills need to be redefined in terms of the real communicative use.
Students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and creative if ever possible. In reading
Since communicative courses focus on meaning rather than
on form, the reading skill is redefined to focus on the purpose of reading.
Traditionally the purpose of reading is to learn language, namely vocabulary, grammar, etc., and reading is regarded as a process of decoding, structural analysis, etc.
In CLT, reading is to extract the meaning or the messages, and the students use different skills, e.g. skimming and scanning (see Unit 10), for different reading purposes. In writing
students should make the writing more meaningful and
authentic, that is to practice writing to express their own feelings or describe their own experience.
In CLT, students have the chance to write to express their own feelings or describe their own experiences, thus making the practice of writing meaningful and authentic.
In short, CLT has expanded the area: ➢
Language content (to incorporate functions);
➢Learning process (cognitive style and information processing); and
➢Product (language skills). 2.4 Communicative activities Littlewood (1981):
➢Functional communicative activities; ➢Social interactional activities.
Littlewood. 1981.
Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Functional communicative activities (p. 18) e.g. Identifying pictures
language for the activity: What colour …? How many …? Where …?
Social interactional activities (pp. 18-19)
e.g. Role-playing through cued dialogues
Reading and writing are also communicative skills which are worth no less attention than listening and speaking.
Rod Ellis’ (1990) six criteria for communicative activities •Communicative purpose; (information gap) •Communicative desire; (real need)
•(Focus on ) Content, not form; (message)
•Variety of language; (not just one language form, free to improvise/create)
•No teacher intervention; (done by Ss; no correcting/evaluating how Ss do it; assessment is based on the ‘product’ or on communicative purpose rather than on the language.) •No material control.
For examples please refer to Wang Qiang’s book (2000) pp. 20-23
Summary of CLT
Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy; Goal of CTL: Communicative competence;
Features of CLT, and Richards and Rodgers’ three principles of CLT:
communicative, task and meaningfulness principles Communicative activities (Littlewood): functional communicative activities, and social interactional activities
Rod Ellis’ six criteria for communicative activities End of CLT Thank you!
Goal: Exchanging personal information Input: Questionnaire on sleeping habits Activity: 1) Reading questionnaire
2) Asking and answering
questions about sleeping habits Teacher role: Monitor and facilitator
to specify what is regarded as
successful completion of the task
Learner role: Conversational partner
Setting: Classroom / pair work
The components of a task： 目标 （Goals）
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信息输入（ Input Data) 语言信息（ Verbal data）
非语言信息（Non-verbal data ） 活动 （Activities） 结果 （Outcome)
语言结果（ Verbal outcome）
非语言结果（Non-verbal outcome ）
Task or exercises?
• The learner will listen to an aural text of weather
forecast and answer questions afterwards on whether given statements are true or false.
• The learner will listen to a weather forecast, identify
the predicted maximum temperature for the day and give suggestions as to what to wear.
Exercise Task 10 promote skills in learning how to learn
11 have clear objectives stating what learners will be able to do as a result of taking part in the task 12 utilize the community as a resource
13 give learners a choice in what way they do and the order in which they do it.
14 involve learners in risk-taking
15 require learners to rehearse, rewrite and polish initial efforts 16 enable learners to share in the planning and development of the task
17 have built into them a means of evaluating the success or otherwise of the task
approach which has become more and more popular from late 1980s, that is, Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT).
Task-Based Language Teaching Focus on Form Meaning Authentic situation Not having Having Task-Based Language Teaching
Assessment means In terms of language structure In terms of completion outcome •What is task? •What is Task-Based Language Teaching? •Task features Language controlling Strictly controlled Freely •Task design: examples and principles •TBLT class management 6. Examples of TBLT •Three pedagogical goals for TBLT Correction Corrected immediately Observed, then corrected •Merits and demerits of TBLT 1.What is task
1.1
Good learning tasks should:
1 enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, of language freely or for some reward. In other words, ‘task’ means the 2 allow learners to rehearse, in class, communicative skills what people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in they will need in the real world between.’ (Long, 1985: 89; via Nunan, 1989:5) 3 activate psychological/psycholinguistic processes of learning 1.2 A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the 4 be suitable for mixed ability groups result of processing or understanding language ( i.e. as a 5 involve learners in solving a problem, coming to a response). (Richards, Platt and Weber 1986:289) conclusion 任务=人们在学习、理解、体会语言之后所开展的活6 be based on authentic or naturalistic source material 动。 7 involve learners in sharing information 8 require the use of more than one macro-skill 9 allow learners to think and talk about language and learning
•Besides CLT, there has been another language teaching
•
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1.3
•A task refers to ‘a range of work plans which have the overall
purpose of facilitating language learning from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision making. It has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes.’(Breen, 1987:23; via Nunan, 1989:6) 1.4
•Definition in broad sense
--- both pedagogical tasks and communicative tasks
•Definition in narrow sense
--- communicative / real-world / target tasks
1.5 What are not tasks?
•Tasks do not include activities which involve language used for practice or display, such as
•‘ Describe the picture using the words and phrases from the
list below’ or ‘ Ask your partner if he likes the food listed here using the forms Do you like…? Yes, I do/ No, I don’t. where there is no outcome or purpose other than practice of pre-specified language.
2.1 Four components of a task A purpose A context A process A product
3. Communicative task
•In general, I too will consider the communicative task as a
piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stay alone as a communicative act in its own right. (Nunan, 1989:10) Communicative task
•A task means a goal-oriented activity with a clear purpose.
Doing a communication task involves achieving an outcome, creating a final product that can be appreciated by other. (Willis, 1998) Task & Activity
•What task differs from activity lies in that task refers to
behavioral blueprints presented to learners while activity refers to behaviors generated by the blueprints. Task is a basic unit for design of language classroom activity. It is by task design for the purpose of completion of task that language knowledge learning activity combines with communicative activity smoothly, language learning combines with language use naturally and closely. Task & Activity
•Tasks do not include activities which involve language use
for practice or display, such as ‘Describe the picture using the
words and phrases from the list below’ or ‘Ask your partner if he likes the food listed here using the forms Do you like…? Yes, I do/ No, I don’t.’ where there is no outcome or purpose other than practice of pre-specified language. Role-play activities
•Very often in role-play situations there is no actual outcome
for students to achieve, other than to enact their roles. Students have to think of suitable things to say to each other, but they are unlikely to be exchanging real meaning.
Jane Willis
Task & Exercise
•Task has a nonlinguistic outcome while Exercise has a
linguistic outcome.
•Skehan (1998) thinks that the information gap is the most
important in distinguishing task and exercise. Task usually has the information, but an Exercise doesn't. For example, a teacher’s explanation or a student’s copying activity doesn't belong to a task, but an exercise.
4. What is Task-Based Language Teaching
•The task-based approach aims at providing opportunities for
the learners to experiment with and explore both spoken and written language through learning activities which are designed to engage learners in the authentic, practical and functional use of language for meaningful purposes.（香港中小学英语大纲）
What is Task-Based Language Teaching
•A task-based approach sees the language process as one of
learning through doing--- it is primarily engaging in meaning
that the learner’s system is encouraged to develop. Success in the task is evaluated in terms of achievement of an outcome, and tasks generally bear some resemblance to real-life language use. ( Long and Crooks, 1993)
What is Task-Based Language Teaching
•Focuses on the construction, sequencing, and evaluation of
particular goal-related action complexes that learners carry out either by themselves (see Prabhu’s model 1987) or jointly (see Kumaravadivelu 1993)
(Candlin & Murphy 1987; Nunan 1989) What is Task-Based Language Teaching Key words:
•Learning activities, learning through doing
•Authentic, practical and functional use of language; real-life
language use
•Outcome, goal-related
•Construction, sequencing, and evaluation •Individually or jointly
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Features of TBLT 1. emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language 2. introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation 3. Provision of opportunities for learners to focus not only on language, but also on the learning process itself 4. An enhancement of the learners’ own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning 5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activation outside the classroom (David Nunan, 1991) 5. Features of TBLT
Littlewood, 2001
•Tasks are activities in which students work purposefully
towards an objective.
•The objective may be one that they have set for themselves or
one which has been set by the teacher.
•The objective may be language–focused (e.g. to discover a
rule of grammar or complete an exercise), or content-focused
(e.g. to carry out a project or reach a decision through
discussion).
•Tasks may be carried out individually or (more often) in groups. •Tasks may be carried out in competition with others or (more often) in collaboration. •The outcome may be something concrete (e.g. a report or presentation) or something intangible (e.g. agreement or the solution to a problem). Features of TBLT Crooks, 1993 •A goal or reason for doing it other than to practice language.
•An activity, or \"doing\" something. •A non-linguistic product as outcome.
•The target language is used to complete the task. •Other desirable features include cooperation with others and negotiation of meanings, and /or procedures.
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate
through interaction in the target language.
强调通过用目标语交流来学会交际
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the
learning situation.
将真实的语言材料引入学习的环境
Communicative task design
•Self-introduction?
•Numbers? •Do you like…? / What’s your favorite…? •Degrees? Examples of communicative tasks 1: Self-introduction Personal information 2: Self-introduction / Exchanging personal information 3: Personal information 4: Numbers 6: Description 7: Degrees 5: Numbers Task design principles
The authenticity principle •The linguistic data that learners work with should be
authentic. Task should provide learners with explicit and
authentic information from the real world.
•The language environment and language form need to be coherent with the practical language function and regular pattern so that learners can experience and master language in
a real or simulated situation. Tasks should be combined with
learners’ personal experience and social life.
Task design principles
The form-function principle
Teach language in ways that make form and function relationships transparent. Attention must be paid to combination of linguistic form and function in task design. Task design principles The task dependency principle Tasks should be designed in the order from simplest
to the most complex and easiest to the most difficult. A series of tasks in a unit of work or in a semester
forms a kind of pedagogical ladder, each task representing a
rung on the ladder, enabling the learner to reach higher and higher levels of communicative performance.
Task design principles Learning by doing principle The teachers should direct learners to learn language by performing specific task activities, to attain and enrich learning experiences and strategies and to conduct language activities for the special purposes and enjoy the happiness of success through completing certain communicative tasks. Learning by doing motivates students to fulfill their potential and enhance their interest and enthusiasm in learning. Learners master the language by using it communicatively in the classroom, although they still have to learn grammar and memorize vocabulary.
Task design principles
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Scaffolding principle
Proper concerns and supports should be given to learners in language teaching, just as scaffold for constructing a building.
Language learning is a gradually developing process in which sufficient help given by teacher is significant for learner’s progress. Scaffolding is a process of ‘setting up’ the situation to make the child’s entry easy and successful and then gradually pulling back and handing the road to the child as he becomes skilled enough to manage it (Bruner, 1983:60). TBLT class management
•Pre-task stage
--- warming-up, input, pedagogical tasks
•While-task stage --- task flowchart, model, communicative tasks performing •Post-task stage
--- tasks sharing and evaluation Pre-task stage
•Describe the overall goals
•Input: verbal data (e.g. a dialogue, reading passage, etc.) or non-verbal data (e.g. picture, video, etc.)
--- teach the necessary task-related information --- point out important task-relevant cues •Pedagogical tasks:
--- allow for practice of motor response While-task stage
•Describe the flowchart of the authentic communicative task to
be performed, including the final product or task outcome and time limit.
•Demonstrate the task procedure if necessary.
•Teach decision-making and problem-solving strategies.
•Students carry on the task while teacher acts as a monitor,
counselor, etc. giving more attention to the less able students. Post-task stage
•Group presentation to share the task products
•Teacher evaluation
•Peer evaluation
Examples of TBLT
•This is a primary school lesson on the language function expressing likes and dislikes.
•Suppose the students are going to have a picnic. They have to decide what to buy according to their likes and dislikes. So the task is designed for them to work out a shopping list collaboratively within different groups, in which the students’ favorite food, drinks, fruits are listed as well as the quantities and the cost of these favorites. Examples of TBLT
Goal: narration of what happened in the past Pre-task stage:
--- Input (written text of a diary): reading comprehension of the
text; format of an English diary.
--- pedagogical tasks: questions and answers based on the text; vocabulary and sentence structure building, etc. While-task stage:
--- diary writing collaboratively or individually Post-task stage:
--- task outcome sharing by demonstrating the written forms of the English diaries.
--- evaluation of the presented diaries focusing on the past tense and the format. Examples of TBLT
•Goals: investigation on environmental pollution •Pre-task stage
--- input (text: Beware the dirty sea): text comprehension by filling the table and necessary explanations; writing techniques on figures and statistics, comparison and contrast. •While-task stage
--- investigation on the pollution of Lijiang River and a survey report on the causes, effects and suggested measures to be taken.
--- Investigation can be made by means of interviews, collecting information from different sources (newspapers, TV programs, internet, libraries, etc.). •Post-task stage
--- survey reports by different groups on a bulletin and evaluation by peer students and teacher as well. Three Pedagogical Goals for TBLT
•Accuracy concerns how well language is produced in relation to the target language
•Complexity concerns the elaboration or ambition of the language which is produced. How far do learners rely on prefabricated phrases and established routines, and how far do they need to expand their language resources to meet the communicative challenge?
•Fluency concerns the learner’s capacity to produce language in real time without undue pausing or hesitation. It is likely to rely upon more lexicalized modes of communication, as the pressure of real time speech production are met only by avoiding excessive rule-based computation.
(Skehan 1994)
Advantages of TBLT
•TBLT helps motivate students. --- interest, risk-taking, carefree, etc.
•TBLT helps acquire the target language. --- linguistic features and integration of 4 skills
•TBLT helps combine the real-life needs with learning situation. --- authenticity
•TBLT helps develop learner autonomy.
--- learning strategies, problem solving, cooperation, planning, evaluation, etc.
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•TBLT helps ensure the learner-centeredness.
--- learner’s own choice, teacher’s role
Disadvantages of TBLT
•The tasks chosen for different classes are lack of coherence. •In accomplishing the task, learners tend to neglect language
forms and heavily depend on the communicative strategy. are lack of creativity, initiative, cooperation and resources. •TBLT will be difficult to implement if teachers and learners •Sometimes, the classroom is difficult to control so that it looks like a chaos. •Evaluation of TBLT can be difficult.
Things to be noticed
•While-task stage is the main part that needs to occupy more
time than the other two stages. •Task accomplishment sometimes requires pre-class work and after-class work.
•Not all the courses and all the periods should be task-based.
5) The teacher also becomes aware of the teaching aids that are needed for the lesson.
6) Lesson planning helps teachers to think about the relative value of different activities and how much time should be spent on them. The teacher soon learns to judge lesson stages and phases with greater accuracy.
7) The plan, with the teacher’s comments and corrections, provides a useful, time-saving reference when the teacher next plans the same lesson.
8) Lesson planning is a good practice and a sign of professionalism.
5) Knowing about the textbook:
The teacher should know the textbook well in terms of its philosophy of teaching, organization of learning contents, major topics, recommend teaching methodology, unit components and ways of assessment. 6) Knowing about the objectives:
The teacher should get to know what learners are expected to achieve and able to do after one semester or a year’s learning.
Macro planning provides a general guidance for language teachers, but it is not enough for good teaching. Teachers still need to plan each unit or lesson in detail in order to teach effectively and confidently in the classroom.
Unit 4
Lesson Planning
Objectives of the Lecture
-to understand why lesson planning is necessary
-to learn the difference between macro planning and micro
planning
-to get to know the components of a lesson plan - to know the principles for good lesson planning
4.1 Why is lesson planning so important?
Lesson planning means making decisions in advance about what to teach, how to teach and the time assignment of every teaching procedure
Teaching plan is necessary for both novice and experienced teachers. Although preparation does not guarantee successful lessons, walking into a classroom unprepared is often the beginning of a disastrous lesson.
Although the main teaching contents may be the same, the students, the time and the mood are all different. Why is L P essential in language teaching?
1) A clear lesson plan makes the teacher aware of the aims and language contents of the lesson.
2) It helps the teacher to distinguish the various stages of a lesson.
3) The teacher can also think about how to fully involve the students to engage in the lesson
4) Lesson planning gives teachers, especially novice teachers, confidence in class.
4.2 Macro Planning
•What is macro planning?
Planning over time, for instance, the planning for a month, a term or the whole course
2. What are involved in macro planning? -knowing about the course -knowing about the institution -knowing about the learners -knowing about the syllabus
Macro planning involves the following: 1) Knowing about the profession:
The teacher should get to know which language areas and language skills should be taught or practised in the course, what materials and teaching aids are available, and what methods and techniques can be used. 2) Knowing about the institution:
The teacher should get to know the institution’s arrangements regarding time, length, frequency of lessons, physical conditions of classrooms, and exam requirements.
3) Knowing about the learners:
The teacher should acquire information about the students’ age range, sex ratio, social background, motivation, attitudes, interests, learning needs and other individual factors. 4) Knowing about the curriculum/syllabus:
The teacher should be clear about the purposes, requirements and targets specified in the syllabus.
4.3 Micro Planning
•What is micro planning?
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Planning for a specific lesson, which usually lasts 40 or 50 minutes.
2. What are involved in micro planning?
A language teaching lesson plan usually has the following components:
•Teaching aims
•Language contents and skills, •Teaching stages and procedures
4.4 Components of a Lesson Plan
A language lesson plan usually has the following components: ①background information, ②teaching aims (what language components to present, what communicative skills to practice, what activities to conduct and what materials and teaching aids to be used), ③language contents (grammar, vocabulary, functions, topics and so on) and skills (listening; speaking; reading and writing), ④stages (the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom) and procedures (detailed steps in each teaching stage), ⑤teaching aids, ⑥end of lesson summary, ⑦optional activities and assignments, ⑧layout of the Bb and ⑨teacher’s after-class reflection.
4.5. Components of A Lesson Plan
1) Level of students/class beginners/ pre-intermediate/ intermediate/ upper-intermediate/ advanced
2) Aim(s) of the lesson l a particular topic (e.g. to learn the names of colours/ to practise language for buying clothes) l a structure (e.g. “be going to”; “will”)
l a skill ( e.g. understanding spoken instructions/ reading skill)
3) Assumed knowledge of the students considering what students already know in relation to the lesson
4) Anticipated problems students may have language problem of new structure, difficulty associated with
cultural differences, or understanding teacher instruction)
5) Teaching aids such as blackboard (most common)/ real objects/ flashcards/ wordcards/
worksheets/ wallcharts/ cassette tapes/ magazine pictures/ video, etc.
6) Teaching material
Course book, supplementary materials…
7) Procedure This is concerned with the teaching steps/stages and activities
in each stage, including when to do, how long to take, what to do and why. Sequence of lesson and integration of skills should be considered.
8) Types of interaction This is concerned with the managerial techniques of the class, such as what classroom interaction pattern should be employed and why.
9) Board plan The designing of the layout of the blackboard and draw it in the lesson plan.
10 Reflection Think about what went well in the lesson and what didn’t.
The 3P’s model
The 3P’s model refers to presentation, practice and production.
At the presentation stage, the teacher introduces new vocabulary and grammatical structures in whatever ways appropriate.
At the practice stage, the lesson moves from controlled practice to guided practice and further to the exploitation of the text when necessary.
At the production stage, the students are encouraged to use what they have learned and practised to perform communicative tasks. The focus is on meaning rather than accurate use of language forms.
The five steps model 1.Lead-in 2. elicitation 3. input 4.practise 5.output
4.6 Principles for Good Lesson Planning Aim: the realistic goals for the lesson
Variety: various activities and materials to ensure high motivation and interest
Flexibility: more teaching methods and techniques and do not just read your teaching plan
Learnability: the planned contents and tasks should be within the learning capability of the students.
doing things that are beyond or below the students’ coping ability will diminish their motivation (Schumann, 1999)
slightly higher than the present proficiency of the students Linkage: the teaching steps should be linked with each other. That is, there should be coherence. _
classroom management
Definition: Classroom management is precisely the skill which teachers apply when teaching. It is somehow a more specific term for the organizational talent teachers show in setting up a good learning /teaching environment. Since
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teachers most likely teach in a classroom, this skill is called “classroom management”. Classroom Management
Classroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom.
The purpose of Classroom management aims at creating an atmosphere that will help students interact in English in meaningful ways.
What does Classroom Management Involve?
It involves both decisions and actions. The actions are what is done in the classroom, for example, re-arranging the chairs. The decisions are about whether to do these actions, when to do them, how to do them, who will do them, etc. The essential basic skill for classroom management is therefore to be able to recognize options available to the teacher, to make appropriate decisions between these options, and to turn them into effective and efficient actions. Six ways for efficiently classroom management
1.The teacher plays appropriate roles. 2.The teacher provides clear instructions.
3.Students are grouped in a way suitable for the learning activities.
4.The teacher asks appropriate questions.
5.There is discipline and harmony in the class. 6.The students’ errors are treated properly. Classroom Management 1) The teacher role 2) Teacher instruction 3) Student grouping 4) Discipline 5) Questioning in the classroom 6) Dealing with errors
What factors may influence classroom management?
People: the relationship between the teacher and the students Language: what you expect them to do (understanding and encouraging students)
Environment: classroom, the positioning of the desks and the position of the teacher
Organization: good lesson plan, clear learning objectives, variety in activities…
Tools: textbook, video-recorder, a slide projector… 5.1 The role of the teacher in the classroom Modern teaching methodology sees teaching as the emancipation of human nature. In the whole process of instruction, teacher and student both play a subjective role. In such a case, the teacher certainly plays quite different roles from the past. Generally speaking, the teacher may play six roles, namely organizer, controller, assessor, prompter, participant, and resource-provider (Harmer, 1983:201) The new roles of the teacher 1.Teachers as facilitators 2.Teachers as guides 3.Teachers as researchers
The role of the teacher
Different approaches stipulate different teacher roles.
Based on the functions that the teacher performs in different activities during the class, Harmer defines the teacher’s roles as controller, assessor, organizer, prompter, participant and resource-provider. Teacher as Controller
The teacher in most approaches is somewhat a controller.
Different activities need a different degree of control. For any activity, appropriate degree of control is most important. Teacher as Assessor
As an assessor, the teacher does two things: Correcting mistakes: gental correcting
Organizing feedback: focus on students’ success or progress Teacher as Organizor
An organizer is the most important and difficult role the teacher has to play.
The teacher’s major work is to design and organize tasks for students to perform in class with task-based language teaching approach.
The teacher should go around the classroom and provide help for students while students are doing the task. Teacher as Prompter
When students are not sure how to start an activity, or what to do next, or what to say next, the teacher should give appropriate prompts. Teacher as Participant
Task-based teaching methods encourage the teacher to participate in students’ activities.
The teacher should change his role once he joins the students. He should not dominate or appear to be authoritative. Teacher as Resource-provider
No matter what kind of method the teacher use in foreign language teaching, he/she should be a good and convenient resource for the students.
When students are supposed to work on their own, the teacher should withhold his/her readiness to provide resources. Teacher’s New Roles
With the implementation of the new English curriculum, teachers are expected to put on new roles: facilitators, guides, researchers
(Fu Daochun, 2001) The role of the teacher
The following are things that teachers often do in the language classroom. Decide what role the teacher is playing in each activity.
The teacher gives students two minutes to skim a text, and when time is up, he asks students to stop and answer some questions.
The teacher writes one of five numbers on a number of cards (the same number as the students). Each student draws one card. Those who have drawn number 1 will form group 1, and those who have drawn number 2 will form group 2. Thus the students are put into five groups in a random way. The role of the teacher
When a student has made a sentence with “borrow”, “I
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borrowed a paper to write a letter”, the teacher says, “Well, we don’t say a paper, we say a piece of paper”.
The teacher asks a student a question “Have you ever bought clothes with problems?” If the student doesn’t seem to be ready, the teacher says “for example, a shirt without…” and points to the buttons on his own shirt or jacket. The role of the teacher
When students are doing a group-work task, the teacher joins one or two groups for a short period of time.
The teacher asks the students to produce conversations (either orally or in writing) by using particular patterns or expressions they have just learned.
5.2 Classroom instructions Proper instruction is the precondition of accomplishment of activities. To give appropriate instruction, it is necessary to follow the following principles. 1. Economy with words: the teacher should use as few words as possible. 2. Simple and clear language at all points: language should be easy to understand. 3. Demonstration of what is needed.
4. Check of students understanding: the teacher can check individual students to make sure that students understand the instruction and know what to do.
5. Use the native language when necessary. 6. Vary the instruction now and then.
5.3 Student grouping
The type of interaction is another factor that influences the effect of instruction. It is necessary for the teacher to know the strong and weak points of each model, and select the right one for classroom interaction.
There are mainly four interaction models： Whole class work (Lockstep ) Pair work Group work Individual study
5.3.1 Whole class work Whole class work is where all the student are under the control of the teacher. They are all doing the same activity at the same rhythm and pace. Whole class work is often adopted when the teacher is making a presentation, checking exercise answers, or doing accuracy reproduction. When the teacher asks questions, the students speak either together or one by one, in turns or indicated by the teacher. 5.3.2 Pair work Pair work is where the students work in pairs. It could be a competition over a game or co-operation in a task or project between the two students. They could also do certain exercises together or oral practice. When the students are doing pair work, the teacher usually circulates around the classroom, answering question or providing help when necessary. 5.3.3 Group work Group work is where the students work in small groups. Each group has 3,4,or 5 students, depending on the activity. What students do in group work is similar to pair work, only
there are more members in the group. Group work is most beneficial when the activity requires contributions from more than two students. The teacher can join each group for a while, but only as a participant not as a leader or inspector.
5.3.4 Individual study
Individual study is the stage during the class where the students are left to work on their own and at their own speed. Usually they are doing the same task, but the teacher may give them a choice of tasks. Some activities cannot be done in pairs or groups, for instance, reading and writing. People read at different speed, so they cannot read together, though two people might share one book. It seems writing can be done in pairs or groups, but what they are actually doing when they are working together is brainstorming ideas, discussing, or revising. When it comes to the real writing stage students should work individually.
5.4 Discipline
Discipline does not mean a series of punishment meted out to badly behaved students. Discipline here refers to a code of conduct, which binds a teacher and a group of students together so that learning can be more effective. How to deal with the indisciplined acts? 5.5 Questioning in the classroom How to ask effective questions? 1) Questions should be closely linked with the teaching objectives in the lesson; 2) Questions should be staged so that the level of challenge increases as the lesson proceeds; 3) There should be a balance between closed and open, lower-order and higher-order questions;
4) Wait time is important to allow students to think through their answers; 5) Students should be provided opportunities to ask their own questions and seek their own answers; 6) A secure and relaxed atmosphere of trust is needed and students’ opinions and ideas are valued.
5.6 Dealing with errors
How to treat students’ errors in the classroom? There are different ways and techniques for correcting errors, such as direct teacher correction, indirect teacher correction, self-correction, peer correction, whole classroom correction, etc. As a general rule, indirect teacher correction is encouraged rather than direct teacher correction to avoid damaging students’ self esteem and confidence. Also, self-correction is encouraged before teacher correction or peer correction.
Teaching Pronunciation 1.2 Views on language
The answer to the question ‘What is language?’ is the basis for:
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syllabus design, teaching methods,
teaching procedures, and teaching techniques . 12.1 The importance of teaching pronunciation
Pronunciation is one of the most important elements of a language.
Without pronunciation, we cannot convey our ideas to other people in oral communication.
A change of sound may change the meaning totally.
If we do not pronounce the word correctly, or our intonation is not accurate, we cannot make ourselves understood. 12.2 The goal of teaching pronunciation
Consistency: The pronunciation should be smooth and natural.
Intelligibility: The pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners.
Communicative efficiency: The pronunciation should help convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker. The objectives of pronunciation in middle schools
Band 5
了解语音在语言学习中的意义； 了解英语语音包括发音，重音，连读，语调，节奏等内容； 在日常生活会话中做到语音，语调基本准确，自然，流畅； 根据重音和语调的变化理解和表达不同的意图和态度； 根据读音拼写单词和短语。
Band 7
在口头表达中做到语音，语调自然和流畅； 根据语音，语调了解话语中隐含的意图和态度； 初步了解英语诗歌中的节奏和韵律； 根据语音辨别和书写不太熟悉的单词。
12.3 Problems in teaching pronunciation
(1) Students’ ignorance in learning pronunciation (2) Teacher’s neglect in pronunciation teaching. (3) Mother tongue interference (4) Improper way of teaching 12.4 Aspects of pronunciation Sound
Phonetic symbols Stress Intonation Rhythm Spelling
12.5 Strategies for teaching pronunciation 12.5.1. Practising sounds Focusing on sounds Perception practice
a. Using minimal pairs
E.g. will well; till tell; fill fell; ship sheep; bid bed
b. Which order
E.g. pit pet bet; bear tear ear; beard beer bear c. same or different?
E.g. met meet; well well; well will d. Odd them out
E.g. bit bit bit pit; lid led lid lid; bag bag back bag
e. Completion
12.5.2. Production practice Listen and repeat Fill in the blanks Make up sentences
Use meaningful context. Use pictures
Use tongue twisters. 12.5.3 Practising stress word-level stress
e.g. photograph / photographer popular / popularity publish / publicity
music / musician celebrate / celebrity organise / organisation
phrase-level or sentence level stress e.g. I want two tickets to London.
(1) Make students listen to some pairs of words and underline the stressed syllable in each word. e.g. some tiresome refer reference park particular face surface
(2) Make students work in pairs like this: Student A reads a statement. Student B responds. At the same time, students are required to pay special attention to the word stress. Example: Student A: I do magic. What am I ? Student B: You’re a magician. I work in a library. (librarian) I work in a politics. (politician) I only eat vegetables. (vegetarian) Stressing important information
Look at the extract from the interview. Underlie the words that you think you are important and should be stressed. Interviewer: How often do you use the Internet? Tom: Every day.
Interviewer: At school or at home?
Tom: At school and at home.
Interviewer: How much time do you spend on the Internet at home?
Tom: As much time as I can. About five hours. Interviewer: Five hours a week?
Tom: No! Five hours a day. 12.5.4 Practising intonation Falling intonation practice e.g. I MET him in the ↘library.
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She was GOING ↘AWAY Rising intonation practice e.g. Are you ↗ HUNGRY?
Can I READ it TO↗MORROW? Do you STUDY in the EVE↗NING? 案例: 外研版高一 page 48
Listen to the intonation of these sentences. The student is asking his teacher questions. Does the voice go up or down at the end?
How much do we need? What about this piece? Is this piece Ok?
Where do we go from here?
Do you want me to write that down?
Listen again and repeat the questions. Use the correct intonation.
12．6 Ways to improve students’ pronunciation
(1) Imitation
(2) Sing English songs (3) Tongue twisters Tongue twisters
Betty bought some butter, but the butter was bitter, so she bought some better butter to make the bitter butter better.
I wish to wish the wish you wish to wish, but if you wish the wish the witch wishes, I won’t wish the wish you wish to wish. If white chalk chalks white on a black blackboard, will black chalk chalk black on a white whiteboard then?
Unit 7 Teaching Grammar
•F of the unit:
•The role of grammar in ELT •Grammar presentation methods •Grammar practice
•五级 了解常用语言形式的基本结构和常用表意功能；在实际运用中体会和领悟语言形式的表意功能；理解和掌握描述人和物的表达方式；理解和掌握描述具体事件和具体行为的发生，发展过程的表达方式；初步掌握描述时间，地点，方位的表达方式；理解，掌握比较人，物体及事物的表达方式。
•七级 掌握描述时间，地点和方位的常用表达方式；理解并掌握比较人，物体及事物的常用表达方式；使用适当的语言形式描述事物，简单地表达观点，态度或情感等；掌握语篇中基本的衔接和连贯手段，并根据特定目的有效地组织信息。
1 The role of grammar in ELT It is generally believed that
❖Grammar teaching is less important for children than for
adults;
❖Grammar teaching is less important in listening and reading than in writing.
2. Methods of Grammar presentation 语法教学的问题可归纳为“五重”和“五轻” （胡春洞，1990）
•重知识传授，轻技能训练； •重详细讲解，轻反复练习； •重书面练习，轻口头练习； •重语法分析，轻语法使用； •重掌握规则，轻掌握实例。
1)The deductive method 2)The inductive method
3)The guided discovery method
4)Teaching grammar using listening as input 5)The synthesis approach
Deductive method
It depends on reasoning, analysing and comparing.
Presentation of an example → explanation (comparison may be done between the target language and the native language) →
Ss’ practice (producing sentences) with given prompts
grammar rules / structures
examples
Advantages of deductive method:
It could be very successful with selected and motivated students.
It could save time when students are confronted with a grammar rule which is complex but which has to be learned. It may help to increase student’ confidence in those examinations which are written with accuracy as the main criterion of success.
Disadvantages of deductive method:
Grammar is taught in an isolated way; Little attention is paid to meaning; The practice is often mechanical. The inductive method
In the inductive method, the teacher induces the learners to realise grammar rules without any form of
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explicit explanation.
It is believed that the rules will become evident if the students are given enough appropriate examples.
examples
grammar rules / structures
Comparison between these two methods ❖Deductive method
••Teach grammar in an isolated way •Little attention is paid to meaning •Mechanical practice
•Successful with motivated students
….Save time when a grammar rule is complex
The guided discovery method
The guided discovery method is similar to the inductive method in that the students are induced to discover rules by themselves but different in that the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly. There are two key theoretical issues related to this method: the role of explicit knowledge in language learning and the value of discovery as a general method of learning (Ellis, 2002a )
❖T: What can you see in the picture, class? ❖Ss: We can see a box, a big box. ❖T: Is it heavy?
❖Ss: Yes, it’s very heavy. It is 200kg. ❖T: Can I carry it? ❖Ss: No, you can’t.
❖T: You are right. I can’t carry it. Why? Because it is too heavy to carry.
Teaching grammar using listening as input
❖Ellis(2002b) suggests the following procedures for teaching grammar using listening as input. Synthesis approach
❖Pennington(2002) (p.107) proposes a synthesis approach to grammar pedagogy .
❖Grammar teaching should be “collocational, constructive, contextual and contrastive”, which can serve as useful guidelines for teaching grammar. (PP.107-108) 3 Grammar practice
❖According to Ur, “practice may be defined as any kind of
engaging with the language on the part of the learner, usually under the teacher supervision, whose primary objective is to consolidate learning” .(Ur, 1988:11) (p.108)
Six factors contribute to successful practice:
Pre-learning. Learners benefit from clear perception and short-term memory of the new language.
Volume and repetition. The more exposure to or production of language the learners have, the more likely they are to learn. Success-orientation. Practice is most effective when based on successful practice.
➢Heterogeneity. Practice should be able to elicit different sentences and generate different levels of answers from different learners.
➢Teacher assistance. The teacher should provide suggestions, hints and prompts.
➢Interest : an essential feature that is closely related to concentration
Two categories of practice:
Mechanical practice meaningful practice Mechanical practice
Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. e.g. ❖
Substitution drills: ❖Transformation drills:
Substitute the underlined part with the proper forms of the given words: green lawn clean house pretty garden nice flowers
Mrs Green has the largest house in town.
Change the following sentences into the past tense. Use the adverbs given in the brackets.
❖Now he lives in London. (last year, Paris)
❖We have English and maths today. (yesterday, music and P. E.)
❖He usually gets up at seven. (this morning, eight)
Questions for discussion
❖What is the purpose of mechanical practice?
❖What are the advantages and disadvantage of mechanical practice?
Meaningful practice❖
In meaningful practice the focus is on the production, comprehension or exchange of meaning, though the students “keep an eye on” the way newly learned structures are used in the process.
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e.g. After the presentation and mechanical practice of adjective comparatives and superlatives:
Pair work: Look at the table below. Rank the items on the left column according to the criteria listed on the top.
The students may come up with: ❖I think beer is cheaper than fruit.
❖No, no, I think fruit is cheaper than beer. There is no clear-cut distinction between mechanical practice and meaningful practice.
Chain of events
Teacher: Now lets play a game. The first student starts a sentence with a second conditional clause. The next student takes the result of the sentence, reforms it into another condition and suggests a further result. For example, the first student says “If I had a million dollars, I would buy a yacht”. The second students says “If I bought a yacht, I would go for a sail”. …
The students may come up with:
❖If I went for a sail, there might be a storm. ❖If there were a storm, my yacht would sink. ❖If my yacht sank, I would die. ❖If I died, my parents would cry. ❖…
A teaching practice task for you
❖Suppose you have just presented the simple past tense to a group of Junior 2 students. Design a mechanical practice activity and a meaningful practice activity. Write out the steps and give a mini demonstration in your practice group.(p.111) Using prompts for practice
Practice based on prompts is usually meaningful practice. ❖Using picture prompts.
❖Using mime or gestures as prompts. ❖Using information sheet as prompts.
❖Using key phrase or key words as prompts. ❖Using chained phrases for story telling. ❖Using created situations.
Using information sheet as prompts
Teacher: What about you? Tell your neighbour.
Using created situations: for simulative communication
❖Your are a stranger in this town. You want to buy some fruit, you want to post a letter, and you also want to see a movie at night. Ask about the places. Summary of Unit 7
❖Perhaps there will never be a solution to the debate on the value of teaching grammar, because language teaching and learning contexts vary so greatly.
❖It should be noted that learning grammar itself is not the ultimate goal of learning English.
❖The understanding of how to teach grammar is as
controversial有争议的 as that of the value of teaching grammar.
❖We believe that both mechanical practice and meaningful practice are necessary.
Principles on teaching grammar
•Teach only those rules that are simple and typical. •Teach useful and important grammar points. •Teach grammar in context.
•Use visible instruments such as charts, tables, diagrams, maps, drawings, and realia (pl. of realis) to aid understanding;
•Avoid difficult grammatical terminologies as much as possible.
•Allow enough opportunities for practice. •Live with the students’ mistakes and errors.
Vocabulary Teaching
❖ Vocabulary teaching is not an isolated activity. ❖ Vocabulary teaching is also a cooperation
❖ The purpose of English vocabulary teaching is to help students develop the abilities of using English for communication and of acquiring knowledge in the future.
❖How to teach vocabulary
❖● What students need to know ❖● Presenting vocabulary ❖● Consolidating vocabulary
❖● Developing vocabulary building strategies
BAND 5
❖了解英语词汇包括单词，短语，习惯用语和固定搭配等
形式；
❖理解和领悟词语的基本含义以及在此特定语境中的意
义；
❖运用词汇描述事物，行为和特征，说明概念等；
❖学会使用1500-1600个单词和200-300个习惯用语或固
定搭配； BAND 8
❖运用词汇理解和表达不同的功能，意图和态度等；
❖在比较复杂的情况下，运用词汇给事物命名，进行指称，
描述行为特征，说明概念等；
❖学会使用3300个左右的单词和400-500个习惯用语或固
定搭配。
\"Without grammar very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.\"
\"When students travel, they don't carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries.”
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❖ Vocabulary
teaching is an indispensable part of
English curriculum.
❖ I. The importance of vocabulary
The singular importance of vocabulary has become a powerful insight to raise achievement.
❖ ● The words we know help us organize our
learning.
❖ ●
The creation of words is our tool for
increasing learning. ❖
❖Vocabulary instruction should be a focal point of
learning, especially for students impacted by poverty.
❖ ● Vocabulary instruction is an excellent advance
organizer but also must be taught in context.
❖Teachers should choose proper ways to instruct words. Many teachers often write new words they want to teach on the blackboard, then explain them one by one. The way is easy for teachers to teach, while it isn't interesting for students to learn．It makes students feel bored.
❖Selecting what to teach, based on frequency and usefulness to the needs of your particular students is therefore essential. 8.1 What to teach?
What does it mean to know a word?
❖▲ Knowing a word means knowing its pronunciation
and stress;
❖▲ Knowing a word means knowing its spelling and
grammatical properties;
❖▲ Knowing a word means knowing its meaning;
❖▲ Knowing a word means knowing how and when to
use it to express the intended meaning. Words and their meanings
❖Denotative meaning
❖ Denotative meaning of a word or a lexical item refers to those words that we use to label things as regards real objects, such as a name or a sign, etc. in the physical world. This is usually the primary meaning of a word and may seem relatively easy to learn.
❖For example, the word “niece” and “nephew” in English refer to one’s brothers’ or sisters’ daughters and sons, while in Chinese there is a distinction made between the names used to describe one’s brother’s children and of one’s sister’s.
❖Connotative meaning
❖
A connotative meaning of a word refers to ‘the attitudes or emotions of a language user in choosing a word and the influence of these on the listener or reader’s interpretation of the word’ (Hedge: 2000: 112). Words and their forms
❖Word grammar
❖The highlighting of regular and irregular forms, e.g.
regular or irregular verbs; countable, uncountable nouns or both; adjectives followed by a preposition or complementary structure, e.g. interested in; and adverbs having the same form as the adjectives, e.g. fast.
❖Knowedge of word building:
❖Affixation (e.g. man, manly, unmanly, unmanliness)
❖Compounding (e.g. policeman, time-consuming, babysit) ❖Conversion (e.g. have a swim (n.)→swim (v.)) ❖Pronunciation
Words and their use
❖1) Style
❖2) Collocations
❖3) Synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms ❖4) Receptive and productive vocabulary
8.2 How To Teach Vocabulary
1. The most effective way is teaching vocabulary IN CONTEXT.
There are two advantages:
1) students remember the words better. 2) students see HOW the words are used.
2. Use all kinds of stories: 3. Teaching by using word-formation:
❖ 4. Model the activities first.
5. Keep an ongoing list prominently posted.
6. Go beyond the definitions of the words. 7. Most work with vocabulary should be done with the meanings available. 8. Incorporate multisensory learning from the beginning.
9. Have structure and organization behind the words you present.
❖ 10. offering words which have the same semantic field of function.
❖ 11. offering different parts of speech. ❖ 12. making sentences.
❖ 13. asking students to read additional English articles. ❖ 14. learning texts in English textbooks.
❖ 15. listening to the tapes for English textbooks
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8.3 Ways to present vocabulary
❖1. Presenting vocabularies by stick drawings, models,
slides, films, videotapes, radios and TVs.
❖3. Illustration
This is very useful for more concrete words (dog, rain, tall) and for visual learners. It has its limits though, not all items can be drawn. ❖ 4. Mime
This lends itself particularly well to action verbs and it can be fun and memorable. ❖
5. Synonyms/Antonyms/Gradable items
Using the words the students already know can be effective for getting meaning across.
❖6. Definition
Make sure that it is clear (maybe check in a learner dictionary) before the lesson if you are not confident. Remember to ask questions to check they have understood properly. ❖
7. Translation
If you know the students' L1, then it is fast and efficient. Remember that not every word has a direct translation. ❖8. Context
Think of a clear context when the word is used and either describe it to the students or give them example sentences to clarify meaning further.
Consolidating vocabulary ❖1. Labeling;
❖2. Spot the differences; ❖3. Describe and draw; ❖4. Play a game;
❖5. Use a word thermometers; ❖6. Use word series; ❖7. Word bingo;
❖8. Word association;
❖9. Odd man out;
❖10. Synonyms and antonyms; ❖11. Using word categories; ❖12. Using word net-work.
❖13. Using the internet resources for more ideas
Developing vocabulary building strategies
❖1. Review regularly
❖2. Guess meaning from context
❖ 1) synonyms or antonyms in the context
❖ 2) reference words
❖ 3) collocations between words ❖3. Organize vocabulary effectively ❖ 1) images and associations
❖ 2) grouping (semantic meaning, use, collocation,
synonyms)
❖4. Use a dictionary ❖5. Manage strategy use ❖6. Use learned vocabulary
Teaching Listening
Discussion
Why does listening seem so difficult? What do we listen to in everyday life? 9.1 Characteristics of the listening process Spontaneity Context Visual aids
Listener’s response Speaker’s adjustment
9.2 Objectives of listening skill teaching in middle schools Band 5
能根据语调和重音理解说话者的意图；
能听懂有关熟悉话题的谈话，并能从中提取信息和观点； 能借助语境克服生词障碍，理解大意；
能听懂接近正常语速的故事和记叙文，理解故事的因果关系；
能在听的过程中用适当方式做出反应； 能针对所听语段的内容记录简单信息。
Band 7
能识别语段中的重要信息并进行简单的推断；
能听懂操作性指令，并能根据要求和指令完成任务； 能听懂正常语速听力材料中对人和物的描写，情节发展及结果；
能听懂有关熟悉话题的谈话并能抓住要点；
能听懂熟悉话题的内容，识别不同语气所表达的不同态度；
能听懂一般场合的信息广播，例如：天气预报。
Band 8
能识别不同语气所表达的不同情感；
能听懂有关熟悉话题的讨论和谈话并记住要点； 能抓住一般语段中的观点；
能基本听懂广播或电视英语新闻的主题或大意； 能听懂委婉的建议或劝告等。 9.2 Principles for teaching listening 1) Combine listening with other skills
2) Focus on the comprehension of meaning 3) Grade difficulty level appropriately
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4) Principles for selecting and using listening activities
Oxford (1993: 210) summarizes the following principles for selecting and using L2 listening activities: (Page 141)
9.3 Models for teaching listening Bottom-up model
Sound→ meaning of the words→meaning of phrases→meaning of structures
Top-down model
Prior knowledge or schematic knowledge 9.4 Three teaching stages
Pre-listening, during which teachers help the students prepare to listen;
While-listening, during which the focus of students’ attention is led to the listening text and the teachers can guide the students and help them understand it;
Post-listening, during which students are offered with opportunities to integrate what they learned from the text into their existing knowledge and communicate with others using the informatin in listening text. 9.4.1 Pre-listening activities Predicting
Setting the scene (Page 146) Listening for the gist Listening for specific information 9.4.2 While-listening activities No specific responses Listen and tick
Listen and sequence Listen and act Listen and draw (page 151) Listen and fill
Listen and take notes
Listen and make judgement 8.4.3 Post-listening activities Multiple-choice questions Answering questions Note-taking and gap-filling Dictogloss Preparation Dictation
Reconstruction
Analysis and correction
Extention of listening Speaking
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